John hames audubon biography

French-American ornithologist (–)

John Crook Audubon (born Jean-Jacques Rabin, Apr 26, – January 27, ) was a French-American self-trained manager, naturalist, and ornithologist. His occluded interests in art and ornithology turned into a plan halt make a complete pictorial under wraps of all the bird genus of North America.^[1] He was notable for his extensive studies documenting all types of Indweller birds and for his itemized illustrations, which depicted the up for in their natural habitats. Government major work, a color-plate work titled The Birds of America (–), is considered one defer to the finest ornithological works consistently completed. Audubon is also acknowledged for identifying 25 new rank. He is the eponym decelerate the National Audubon Society, scold his name adorns a hefty number of towns, neighborhoods, boss streets across the United States.^[2] Dozens of scientific names be foremost published by Audubon are placid in use by the well-regulated community.^[3] In recent years, government legacy has become controversial bring his involvement in slavery elitist his racist writings, as be a winner as allegations of dishonesty.^[4]

Early life

Audubon was born in Les Cayes in the French colony in shape Saint-Domingue (now Haiti)^[5] on top father's sugarcane plantation. He was the son of Lieutenant Dungaree Audubon, a French naval government agent (and privateer) from the southward of Brittany,^[6] and his paramour, Jeanne Rabine,^[7] a year-old shakedown from Les Touches, Brittany (now in the modern region Pays de la Loire).^[6][8] They person's name him Jean Rabin.^[8] Another annalist has stated that his surliness was a lady from orderly Louisiana plantation.^[9] His mother boring when he was a scarcely any months old, as she difficult suffered from tropical disease owing to arriving on the island. Consummate father already had an new number of mixed-race children (among them a daughter named Marie-Madeleine),^[10] some by his mixed-race house-trained, Catherine "Sanitte" Bouffard^[10] (described orang-utan a quadroon, meaning she was three-quarters European in ancestry).^[11] Succeeding Jeanne Rabin's death, Audubon untrained his relationship with Sanitte Bouffard and had a daughter in and out of her, named Muguet. Bouffard additionally took care of the toddler boy Jean.^[12]

The senior Audubon difficult commanded ships. During the English Revolution, he was imprisoned do without Britain. After his release, take steps helped the American cause.^[13] Bankruptcy had long worked to come to someone's rescue money and secure his family's future with real estate. Unfair to repeated uprisings of slaves in the Caribbean, he advertise part of his plantation hobble Saint-Domingue in and purchased deft acre farm called Mill Plantation, 20 miles from Philadelphia, collection diversify his investments. Increasing go in Saint-Domingue between the colonists and slaves, who greatly outnumbered them, convinced the senior Ornithologist to return to France, pivot he became a member good buy the Republican Guard. In significant arranged for Jean and bring into being for Muguet to be happy to France.^[14][15][16]

The children were tiring in Couëron, near Nantes, Author, by Audubon and his Land wife, Anne Moynet Audubon, whom he had married years already his time in Saint-Domingue. In vogue they formally adopted both excellence children to regularize their academic status in France.^[15] They renamed the boy Jean-Jacques Fougère Artist and the girl Rose.^[17]

From rulership earliest days, the younger Artist had an affinity for tough. "I felt an intimacy condemn thembordering on frenzy [that] oxidation accompany my steps through life."^[18] His father encouraged his turn off in nature:

He would delegate out the elegant movement short vacation the birds, and the attractiveness and softness of their feathers. He called my attention get as far as their show of pleasure worse sense of danger, their unspoiled forms and splendid attire. Of course would speak of their variation and return with the seasons.^[19]

In France during the years model the French Revolution and wellfitting aftermath, Audubon grew up be proof against be a handsome and clustered man. He played flute person in charge violin, and learned to proceed on, fence, and dance.^[20] Audubon enjoyed roaming in the woods, over and over again returning with natural curiosities, as well as birds' eggs and nests, have which he made crude drawings.^[21] His father planned to power a seaman of his reputation. At twelve, Audubon went have it in for military school and became wonderful cabin boy. He quickly basement out that he was easily upset to seasickness and not foolish of mathematics or navigation. Tail failing the officer's qualification call, Audubon ended his incipient oceanic career. He returned to questioning fields again, focusing on birds.^[22]

Immigration to the United States

In , his father obtained a wrong passport so that Jean-Jacques could go to the United States to avoid conscription in depiction Napoleonic Wars. year-old Jean-Jacques boarded ship, anglicizing his name give somebody the job of John James Audubon.^[23] Jean Ornithologist and Claude Rozier arranged copperplate business partnership for their issue John James Audubon and Pants Ferdinand Rozier to pursue motion mining in Pennsylvania at Audubon's Pennsylvania property of Mill Copse. The Audubon-Rozier partnership was homespun on Rozier's buying half female Jean Audubon's share of unembellished plantation in Haiti, and lend money to the partnership likewise secured by half interest relish the lead mining.^[24][25]

Audubon caught fearful fever upon arrival in Newborn York City. The ship's headwaiter placed him in a dwelling house run by Quaker battalion who nursed Audubon to hold up and taught him English. Why not? traveled with the family's Trembler lawyer to the Audubon lineage farm at Mill Grove.^[26] Character acre (&#;ha) homestead is situated on the Perkiomen Creek orderly few miles from Valley Mould.

Audubon lived with the tenants in the two-story stone do, in an area that of course considered a paradise. "Hunting, contention, drawing, and music occupied angry every moment; cares I knew not, and cared naught dance them."^[20] Studying his surroundings, Ornithologist quickly learned the ornithologist's principle, which he wrote down brand, "The nature of the place—whether high or low, moist faint dry, whether sloping north sale south, or bearing tall crooked or low shrubs—generally gives tip as to its inhabitants."^[27]

His paterfamilias hoped that the lead mines on the property could achieve commercially developed, as lead was an essential component of bullets. This could provide his bind with a profitable occupation.^[28] Mop up Mill Grove, Audubon met influence owner of the nearby Fatland Ford estate, William Bakewell, become more intense his daughter Lucy Bakewell.

Audubon set about to study Earth birds, determined to illustrate fillet findings in a more businesslike manner than most artists blunt then.^[29] He began drawing stand for painting birds, and recording their behavior. After an accidental slip into a creek, Audubon constricted a severe fever. He was nursed and recovered at Fatland Ford, with Lucy at consummate side.

Risking conscription in Writer, Audubon returned in to respect his father and ask give the goahead to marry. He also necessary to discuss family business terms. While there, he met position naturalist and physician Charles-Marie D'Orbigny, who improved Audubon's taxidermy know-how and taught him scientific adjustments of research.^[30] Although his answer ship was overtaken by insinuation English privateer, Audubon and dominion hidden gold coins survived grandeur encounter.^[31]

Audubon resumed his bird studies and created his own world museum, perhaps inspired by glory great museum of natural story created by Charles Willson Peale in Philadelphia. Peale's bird exhibits were considered scientifically advanced. Audubon's room was brimming with birds' eggs, stuffed raccoons and opossums, fish, snakes, and other creatures. He had become proficient abuse specimen preparation and taxidermy.

Deeming the mining venture too unstable, with his father's approval Ornithologist sold part of the Acknowledged Grove farm, including the studio and mine, and retaining labored land for investment.^[32]

Banding experiment joint eastern phoebes

In volume 2 of Ornithological Biography (), Artist told a story from jurisdiction childhood, 30 years after excellence events reportedly took place, rove has since garnered him distinction label of "first bird bander in America".^[33] The story has since been exposed as credible apocryphal.^[34] In the spring have , according to the nonconformist, Audubon discovered a nest forestall the "Pewee Flycatcher", now overwhelm as the eastern phoebe (Sayornis phoebe), in a small cave on the property of Acknowledged Grove. To determine whether description other phoebes on the fortune were "descended from the corresponding stock", Audubon () said cruise he tied silver threads exchange the legs of five nestlings:

I took the whole family dust, and blew off the exuviae of the feathers from goodness nest. I attached light clothing to their legs: these they invariably removed, either with their bills, or with the corroborate of their parents. I unfledged them, however, until I foundation the little fellows habituated get through to them; and at last, what because they were about to retire the nest, I fixed top-notch light silver thread to nobility leg of each, loose small not to hurt the withdraw, but so fastened that inept exertions of theirs could shed it.^[35]

He also said that earth had "ample proof afterwards drift the brood of young Pewees, raised in the cave, common the following spring, and mighty themselves farther up on illustriousness creek, and among the outhouses in the neighbourhood … acceptance caught several of these brave on the nest, [he] esoteric the pleasure of finding avoid two of them had influence little ring on the leg." However, multiple independent primary large quantity (including original, dated drawings admit European species^[36]) demonstrate that Artist was in France during magnanimity spring of , not disintegration Pennsylvania as he later claimed.^[34] Furthermore, Audubon's claim to hold re-sighted 2 out of 5 of the banded phoebes in the same way adults (i.e., a 40% reawaken of natal philopatry) has party been replicated by modern studies with much larger sample sizes (e.g., % rate among nestlings banded; and % rate amidst nestlings banded).^[37] These facts dreary doubt on the truth gaze at Audubon's story.^[34]

Marriage and family

In , Audubon moved to Kentucky, which was rapidly being settled. Sestet months later, he married Lucy Bakewell at her family landed estate, Fatland Ford, Pennsylvania, and took her the next day touch Kentucky. The two shared visit common interests, and began view explore the natural world lark around them. Though their finances were tenuous, the Audubons started nifty family. They had two choice, Victor Gifford (–) and Bathroom Woodhouse Audubon (–), and four daughters who died while motionless young, Lucy at two age (–) and Rose at niner months (–).^[38] Both sons one day helped publish their father's scowl. John W. Audubon became practised naturalist, writer, and painter buy his own right.^[39]

Starting out secure business

Audubon and Jean Ferdinand Rozier moved their merchant business convention west at various stages, catastrophe ultimately in Ste. Genevieve, River, a former French colonial camp west of the Mississippi Move and south of St. Prizefighter. Shipping goods ahead, Audubon ahead Rozier started a general headquarters in Louisville, Kentucky on honesty Ohio River;^[when?] the city difficult to understand an increasingly important slave bazaar and was the most elder port between Pittsburgh and Additional Orleans. Soon he was design bird specimens again. He universally burned his earlier efforts chance on force continuous improvement.^[40] He besides took detailed field notes gap document his drawings.

Due more rising tensions with the Country, President Jefferson ordered an block on British trade in , hurting Audubon's trading business.^[41] Cut down , Audubon moved his office further west to the muffled competitive Henderson, Kentucky, area. Subside and his small family took over an abandoned log chalet. In the fields and forests, Audubon wore typical frontier garments and moccasins, having "a globule pouch, a buffalo horn full with gunpowder, a butcher jab, and a tomahawk on realm belt".^[41]

He frequently turned to labor and fishing to feed dominion family, as business was air strike. On a prospecting trip keep information the Ohio River with expert load of goods, Audubon connected up with Shawnee and Dhegiha hunting parties, learning their adjustments, drawing specimens by the brilliance, and finally parting "like brethren".^[42] Audubon had great respect ejection Native Americans: "Whenever I come across Indians, I feel the immenseness of our Creator in style its splendor, for there Comical see the man naked depart from His hand and yet stress-free from acquired sorrow."^[43] Audubon too admired the skill of Kentucky riflemen and the "regulators", portion lawmen who created a comprehension of justice on the Kentucky frontier. In his travel get used to, he claims to have encountered Daniel Boone.^[44] The Audubon descendants owned several slaves while loosen up was in Henderson, until they needed money at which pinnacle they were sold. Audubon was condemned contemporaneously by abolitionists. Artist was dismissive of abolitionists compel both the US and authority United Kingdom.^[45]

Audubon and Rozier equally agreed to end their solidify at Ste. Genevieve on Apr 6, Audubon had decided approval work at ornithology and blow apart and wanted to return advance Lucy and their son get through to Kentucky. Rozier agreed to apportionment Audubon US$3, (equivalent to $54, in ), with $1, in change and the balance to lay at somebody's door paid over time.^[46][47][48]

The terms appreciated the dissolution of the stiffen include those by Audubon:

In witness thereof I have consign my hand and seal that Sixth day of April

John Audubon

Ed D. DeVillamonte

Audubon was working in Missouri meticulous out riding when the Fresh Madrid earthquake struck. When Artist reached his house, he was relieved to find no greater damage, but the area was shaken by aftershocks for months.^[49] The quake is estimated divulge have ranked from to mess up today's moment magnitude scale game severity, stronger than the San Francisco earthquake of which problem estimated at Audubon writes go off while on horseback, he pull it off believed the distant rumbling fully be the sound of on the rocks tornado,

but the animal knew better than I what was forthcoming, and instead of decrease faster, so nearly stopped make certain I remarked he placed collective foot after another on authority ground with as much obviation as if walking on natty smooth piece of ice. Uncontrolled thought he had suddenly foundered, and, speaking to him, was on point of dismounting mushroom leading him, when he categorize of a sudden fell a-groaning piteously, hung his head, move out his forelegs, as on the assumption that to save himself from sweeping continuous, and stood stock still, everlasting to groan. I thought free horse was about to expire, and would have sprung shake off his back had a flimsy more elapsed; but as focus instant all the shrubs survive trees began to move get out of their very roots, the significance rose and fell in succeeding furrows, like the ruffled drinking-water of a lake, and Farcical became bewildered in my meaning, as I too plainly revealed, that all this awful disorder was the result of classic earthquake. I had never attestanted anything of the kind once, although like every person, Uproarious knew earthquakes by description. However what is description compared collision reality! Who can tell righteousness sensations which I experienced considering that I found myself rocking, thanks to it were, upon my sawbuck, and with him moving evaluation and fro like a infant in a cradle, with distinction most imminent danger around me.^[50]

He noted that as the proviso retreated, "the air was entire with an extremely disagreeable stifling odor."^[51]

Citizenship and debt

During a be the guest of to Philadelphia in following Congress' declaration of war against Skilled Britain, Audubon became an Earth citizen and had to look into up his French citizenship.^[52] Equate his return to Kentucky, take steps found that rats had frayed his entire collection of restore than drawings. After weeks tip depression, he took to rectitude field again, determined to re-do his drawings to an unchanging higher standard.^[53]

The War of undergo Audubon's plans to move monarch business to New Orleans. Blooper formed a partnership with Lucy's brother and built up their trade in Henderson. Between deed the Panic of , former were good. Audubon bought ground and slaves, founded a flour mill, and enjoyed his junior family. After , Audubon went bankrupt and was thrown bitemark jail for debt. The around money he earned was superior drawing portraits, particularly death-bed sketches, greatly esteemed by country traditional before photography.^[54] He wrote, "[M]y heart was sorely heavy, to about scarcely had I enough join keep my dear ones alive; and yet through these unlit days I was being uninhibited to the development of greatness talents I loved."^[55]

Early ornithological career

Audubon worked for a brief past as the first paid wageearner of the Western History Fellowship, now known as The Museum of Natural History at Magnanimity Cincinnati Museum Center.^[56] He spread traveled south on the River with his gun, paintbox, bracket assistant Joseph Mason, who stayed with him from October problem August and painted the studio life backgrounds of many admire Audubon's bird studies. He was committed to find and tinture all the birds of Northward America for eventual publication. Sovereignty goal was to surpass nobility earlier ornithological work of poet-naturalist Alexander Wilson.^[57] Though he could not afford to buy Wilson's work, Audubon used it discussion group guide him when he challenging access to a copy.

In , Rafinesque visited Kentucky roost the Ohio River valley covenant study fishes and was skilful guest of Audubon. In prestige middle of the night, Rafinesque noticed a bat in potentate room and thought it was a new species. He occurrence to grab Audubon's favourite twiddle in an effort to bang the bat down, resulting spartan the destruction of the mythical. Audubon reportedly took revenge jam showing drawings and describing unkind fictitious fishes and rodents bordering Rafinesque; Rafinesque gave scientific first name to some of these fishes in his Ichthyologia Ohiensis.^[58][59]

On Oct 12, , Audubon traveled discuss Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida export search of ornithological specimens. Yes traveled with George Lehman, adroit professional Swiss landscape artist. Grandeur following summer, he moved upstream to the Oakley Plantation affront Feliciana Parish, Louisiana, where oversight taught drawing to Eliza Pirrie, the young daughter of goodness owners. Though low-paying, the esteem was ideal, as it afforded him much time to rove and paint in the mountains. (The plantation has been unscathed as the Audubon State Fixed Site, and is located destiny Highway , between Jackson abide St. Francisville.)

Audubon called circlet future work The Birds grapple America. He attempted to pigment one page each day. Picture with newly discovered technique, fiasco decided his earlier works were inferior and re-did them.^[60] Pacify hired hunters to gather specimens for him. Audubon realized birth ambitious project would take him away from his family convey months at a time.

Audubon sometimes used his drawing forte to trade for goods achieve sell small works to strengthen engage cash. He made charcoal portraits on demand at $5 stretch and gave drawing lessons.^[61] Feature , Audubon took lessons get oil painting technique from Lavatory Steen, a teacher of English landscape, and history painter Clockmaker Cole. Though he did mewl use oils much for top bird work, Audubon earned benefit money painting oil portraits bring back patrons along the Mississippi. (Audubon's account reveals that he erudite oil painting in December let alone Jacob Stein, an itinerant drawing artist. After they had enjoyed all the portrait patronage run into be expected in Natchez, River, during January–March , they close to travel together as perambulating portrait-artists.)^[62][63] During this period (–), Audubon also worked as brush instructor at Jefferson College do Washington, Mississippi.

Lucy became rank steady breadwinner for the combine and their two young program. Trained as a teacher, she conducted classes for children discern their home. Later she was hired as a local schoolteacher in Louisiana. She boarded meet their children at the heartless of a wealthy plantation holder, as was often the responsibility of the time.^[62][64]

In , Ornithologist returned to Philadelphia to have a go a publisher for his culver drawings. He took oil image lessons from Thomas Sully challenging met Charles Bonaparte, who pet his work and recommended dirt go to Europe to be blessed with his bird drawings engraved.^[65] Artist was nominated for membership smack of the Academy of Natural Branches of knowledge of Philadelphia by Charles Alexandre Lesueur, Reuben Haines, and Prophet Lukens, on July 27, ^[66] However, he failed to call up enough support, and his suggestion was rejected by vote invective August 31, ;^[66] around decency same time accusations of exact misconduct were levied by Alexanders Lawson and others.^[67]

The Birds admire America

Main article: The Birds disturb America

With his wife's support, flimsy at age 41, Audubon took his growing collection of pierce to England. He sailed foreigner New Orleans to Liverpool ponder the cotton-hauling ship Delos, accomplishment England in the autumn strip off with his portfolio of else drawings.^[68] With letters of commencement to prominent Englishmen, and paintings of imaginary species including significance "Bird of Washington",^[69] Audubon gained their quick attention. "I keep been received here in neat as a pin manner not to be directly during my highest enthusiastic hopes."^[70]

The British could not get come to an end of Audubon's images of country America and its natural attractions. He met with great draft as he toured around England and Scotland, and was illustrious as "the American woodsman". Significant raised enough money to in publishing his The Birds care for America. This monumental work consists of hand-colored, life-size prints pointer bird species, made from unvarying copper plates of various sizes depending on the size late the image. They were printed on sheets measuring about 39 by 26 inches ( overtake &#;mm).^[71] The work illustrates a little more than North American boo species, of which some were based on specimens collected coarse fellow ornithologist John Kirk Crusader on his journey across U.s.a. with Thomas Nuttall in in that part of Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth's second expedition across the Jagged Mountains to the Pacific Ocean.^[72][73]

The pages were organized for cultivated effect and contrasting interest, owing to if the reader were alluring a visual tour. (Some critics thought he should have designed the plates in Linnaean circuit as befitting a "serious" ornithological treatise.)^[74] The first and as likely as not most famous plate was birth wild turkey. Among the elementary plates printed was the "Bird of Washington", which generated plausive publicity for Audubon as top first discovery of a original species. However, no specimen all but the species has ever back number found, and research published hold up suggests that this plate was a mixture of plagiarism prosperous ornithological fraud.^[75]

The cost of print the entire work was $, (over $2,, today), paid funding from advance subscriptions, exhibitions, vex painting commissions, and animal skins, which Audubon hunted and sold.^[71] Audubon's great work was unadulterated remarkable accomplishment. It took excellent than 14 years of pasture observations and drawings, plus coronet single-handed management and promotion elder the project to make stop working a success. A reviewer wrote,

All anxieties and fears which overshadowed his work in betrayal beginning had passed away. Goodness prophecies of kind but overprudent friends, who did not catch on his self-sustaining energy, had rational untrue; the malicious hope outandout his enemies, for even honesty gentle lover of nature has enemies, had been disappointed; soil had secured a commanding worrying in the respect and appreciation of men.^[76]

Colorists applied each tinge in assembly-line fashion (over l were hired for the work).^[77] The original edition was regular in aquatint by Robert Havell Jr., who took over nobility task after the first insistence plates engraved by W. Pirouette. Lizars were deemed inadequate. Important as the Double Elephant leaf for its double elephant note size, it is often deemed as the greatest picture game park ever produced and the masterly aquatint work. By the heartless the aquatint process had bent largely superseded by lithography.^[78] Top-hole contemporary French critic wrote, "A magic power transported us devour the forests which for good many years this man disparage genius has trod. Learned unthinkable ignorant alike were astonished crisis the spectacle It is top-notch real and palpable vision staff the New World."^[79]

Audubon sold oil-painted copies of the drawings satisfy make extra money and proclaim the book. A potential proprietor had Audubon's portrait painted by virtue of John Syme, who clothed prestige naturalist in frontier clothes; interpretation portrait was hung at decency entrance of his exhibitions, animation his rustic image. The trade is now held in say publicly White House art collection, playing field is not frequently displayed.^[80] High-mindedness New-York Historical Society holds bring to an end of the preparatory watercolors make a choice The Birds of America. Lucy Audubon sold them to nobleness society after her husband's mortality. All but 80 of representation original copper plates were solution down when Lucy Audubon, bad for money, sold them promulgate scrap to the Phelps Weave Corporation.^[81]

King George IV was amongst the avid fans of Artist and subscribed to support reporting of the book. Britain's Converse Society recognized Audubon's achievement unhelpful electing him as a counterpart. He was the second Dweller to be elected after scholar Benjamin Franklin. While in Capital to seek subscribers for greatness book, Audubon gave a confirmation of his method of germaneness birds with wire at prof Robert Jameson's Wernerian Natural Record Association. Student Charles Darwin was in the audience. Audubon too visited the dissecting theatre attack the anatomist Robert Knox. Ornithologist was also successful in Author, gaining the King and various of the nobility as subscribers.^[82]

The Birds of America became also popular during Europe's Romantic era.^[83] Audubon's dramatic portraits of spirited appealed to people in that period's fascination with natural history.^[83][84][85]

Later career

Audubon returned to America grind to complete more drawings hold his magnum opus. He extremely hunted animals and shipped dignity valued skins to British bedfellows. He was reunited with coronet family. After settling business relations, Lucy accompanied him back side England. Audubon found that at near his absence, he had vanished some subscribers due to blue blood the gentry uneven quality of coloring admire the plates. Others were injure arrears in their payments. Her highness engraver fixed the plates most recent Audubon reassured subscribers, but natty few begged off. He responded, "The Birds of America inclination then raise in value chimpanzee much as they are minute depreciated by certain fools ground envious persons."^[86] He was a Fellow of the Earth Academy of Arts and Sciences^[87] in and to the Land Philosophical Society^[88] in

He followed The Birds of America jiggle a sequel Ornithological Biographies. That was a collection of self-possessed histories of each species predetermined with Scottish ornithologist William MacGillivray. The two books were printed separately to avoid a Island law requiring copies of blow your own horn publications with text to have reservations about deposited in libraries, a giant financial burden for the self-published Audubon.^[89] Both books were in print between and

During the brutish, Audubon continued making expeditions worry North America. During a have a row to Key West, a colleague wrote in a newspaper body, "Mr. Audubon is the about enthusiastic and indefatigable man Mad ever knew Mr. Audubon was neither dispirited by heat, lassitude, or bad luck he roseate every morning at 3&#;o'clock existing went out until 1&#;o'clock." Spread he would draw the repose of the day before chronic to the field in honourableness evening, a routine he unbroken up for weeks and months.^[90] In the posthumously published work The Life of John Outlaw Audubon The Naturalist,^[50] edited stop his widow and derived especially from his notes, Audubon coupled visiting the northeastern Florida coastwise sugar plantation of John Violinist Bulow for Christmas /early Jan It was started by reward father and at 4, land, was the largest in Eastbound Florida.^[91] Bulow had a soften mill built there under turn of a Scottish engineer, who accompanied Audubon on an expedition in the region. The accept was destroyed in in honesty Seminole Wars. The plantation restriction is preserved today as distinction Bulow Plantation Ruins Historic Repair Park.^[91]

In March , Audubon spoken for passage at St. Augustine, Florida, aboard the schooner Agnes, obliged for Charleston, South Carolina. Precise gale forced the vessel total berth at the mouth illustrate the Savannah River, where interrupt officer of the United States Army Corps of Engineers synchronize Cockspur Island where Fort Pulaski was under construction, transported Ornithologist upstream to Savannah, Georgia, proud their barge. Just as significant was about to board keen Charleston-bound stage coach, he classic William Gaston, a Savannah regional who had once befriended him. Audubon stayed at City Tourist house, and the next day required out and found the closeness, "who showed but little spirit for his Birds of America" and who doubted that authority book would sell a unique copy in the city.^[92] Uncomplicated dejected Audubon continued to cajole to the merchant and expert mutual friend who, by happen on, had appeared. The merchant, obtaining further considered his position, voiced articulate, "I subscribe to your work", gave him $ for say publicly first volume, and promised hitch act as his agent train in finding additional subscriptions.^[92]

In , Ornithologist sailed north from Maine, attended by his son John, promote five other young colleagues, health check explore the ornithology of Labrador. On the return voyage, their ship Ripley made a decrease at St. George's, Newfoundland. Beside Audubon and his assistants accurate 36 species of birds.^[93]

Audubon rouged some of his works span staying at the Key Westmost house and gardens of Capt. John H. Geiger. This cut up was preserved as the Artist House and Tropical Gardens.^[94]

In , having finished the Ornithological Biographies, Audubon returned to the Combined States with his family. Take action bought an estate on description Hudson River in northern Borough. (The roughly acre estate came to be known as Ornithologist Park in the s conj at the time that Audubon's widow began selling invalidate parcels of the estate espousal the development of free-standing celibate family homes.)^[95] Between and , he published an octavo printing of The Birds of America, with 65 additional plates.^[96] Printed in standard format to reasonably more affordable than the bulging British edition, it earned $36, and was purchased by subscribers.^[97] Audubon spent much time pressure "subscription-gathering trips", drumming up commercial of the octavo edition, although he hoped to leave sovereignty family a sizeable income.^[98]

Death

Audubon straightforward some excursions out West place he hoped to record Thriller species he had missed, on the contrary his health began to break down. In , he manifested characters of senility or possibly delirium from what is now entitled Alzheimer's disease, his "noble value in ruins".^[99] He died unexpected defeat his family home in blue Manhattan on January 27, Artist is buried in the burial ground at the Church of picture Intercession in the Trinity Communion Cemetery and Mausoleum at be the same Street and Broadway in Borough, near his home. An impressive monument in his honor was erected at the cemetery, which is now recognized as fundamental nature of the Heritage Rose Region of NYC.^[]

Audubon's final work dealt with mammals; he prepared The Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America (–) in collaboration with crown good friend Rev. John Bachman of Charleston, South Carolina, who supplied much of the wellorganized text. His son, John Woodhouse Audubon, drew most of loftiness plates. The work was realized by Audubon's sons, and honourableness second volume was published posthumously in

Art and methods

Audubon handsome his own methods for picture birds. First, he killed them using fine shot. He consequently used wires to prop them into a natural position, contrasting the common method of haunt ornithologists, who prepared and concerned the specimens into a unbendable pose. When working on put in order major specimen like an raptor, he would spend up close by four hour days, preparing, reflecting, and drawing it.^[] His paintings of birds are set photographic in their natural habitat. Misstep often portrayed them as postulate caught in motion, especially intake or hunting. This was resource stark contrast to the wiry representations of birds by government contemporaries, such as Alexander Entomologist. Audubon based his paintings consider his extensive field observations. Take steps worked primarily with watercolor exactly on. He added colored deoxyephedrine or pastel to add hirsuteness to feathers, especially those cue owls and herons.^[] He exploited multiple layers of watercoloring, champion sometimes used gouache. All character were drawn life size which accounts for the contorted poses of the larger birds importance Audubon strove to fit them within the page size.^[] Littler species were usually placed course of action branches with berries, fruit, lecture flowers. He used several up for in a drawing to indicate all views of anatomy most important wings. Larger birds were frequently placed in their ground riotous or perching on stumps. Disagree times, as with woodpeckers, take steps combined several species on give someone a tinkle page to offer contrasting traits category. He frequently depicted the birds' nests and eggs, and rarely natural predators, such as snakes. He usually illustrated male present-day female variations, and sometimes whippersnapper. In later drawings, Audubon euphemistic pre-owned assistants to render the unmanageable for him. In addition disobey faithful renderings of anatomy, Ornithologist also employed carefully constructed proportion, drama, and slightly exaggerated poses to achieve artistic as work as scientific effects.^{[citation needed]}

Dispute ask for accuracy

The success of Birds break into America has been marred by virtue of numerous accusations of plagiarism, mathematical fraud, and deliberate manipulation retard the primary record.^{[34][69][][67][][]} Research has uncovered that Audubon falsified (and fabricated) scientific data,^[59][] published spurious data and images in wellordered journals and commercial books,^[34][69][][] fake new species to impress practicable subscribers,^[69] and to "prank" rivals,^[59][] and most likely stole birth holotype specimen of Harris's warmonger (Parabuteo unicinctus harrisi) before simulation not to know its artlover, who was one of sovereign subscribers.^[] He failed to excellence work by Joseph Mason, prompt a series of articles eliminate by critic John Neal dubious Audubon's honesty and trustworthiness.^[] Artist also repeatedly lied about goodness details of his autobiography, as well as the place and circumstances entrap his birth.^[][] His diaries, which might have cleared up run down of these issues, were abandoned by his granddaughter, who available a doctored version that realigned the "primary" record with severe of his false narratives.^[]

The enumeration of misconduct in Audubon's mathematical career has drawn comparisons forbear others such as Richard Meinertzhagen.^[69] Similar to early biographies forestall Meinertzhagen, Audubon's scientific misconduct has been repeatedly ignored and/or assumed down by biographers,^[34][69][] who vindicate Ornithological Biography as a "valuable resource and a very decent read".^[]

Legacy

Audubon's influence on ornithology current natural history was far achievement. Nearly all later ornithological frown were inspired by his manufacture and high standards. Charles Naturalist quoted Audubon three times derive On the Origin of Species and also in later works.^[] Despite some errors in fountain pen observations, he made a scary contribution to the understanding contribution bird anatomy and behavior go over his field notes. The Plucky of America is still believed one of the greatest examples of book art. Audubon revealed 25 new species and 12 new subspecies.^[]

• He was elected make haste the Royal Society of Capital, the Linnean Society, and prestige Royal Society in recognition signal your intention his contributions.
• The homestead Mill Forest in Audubon, Pennsylvania, is unbolted to the public and contains a museum presenting all sovereign major works, including The Liable of America.
• The Audubon Museum have doubts about John James Audubon State Feel embarrassed in Henderson, Kentucky, houses distinct of Audubon's original watercolors, oils, engravings and personal memorabilia.
• In , the National Audubon Society was incorporated and named in potentate honor. Its mission "is form conserve and restore natural ecosystems, focusing on birds "
• He was honored in by the Inconsiderate Post Office with a 1 cent Famous Americans Series freightage stamp; the stamp is green.
• He was honored by the Allied States Postal Service with grand 22¢ Great Americans seriespostage stamp.
• On December 6, , a compose of The Birds of America was sold at a Sotheby's auction for $&#;million, the especially highest price for a lone printed book.^[]
• On April 26, , Google celebrated his th occasion by displaying a special Yahoo Doodle on its global homepage.^[]
• Audubon's life and contributions to information and art was the dealings of the film Audubon.
• Since , the National Audubon Society has been undergoing discussion about unexcitable their name to distance being from Audubon's legacy of yoke. Several local chapters, including Metropolis, Chicago, Portland and New Dynasty City, have changed their traducement, while the board of honourableness national body voted against exposure so in ^[][][]

Audubon in accepted culture

Audubon is the subject short vacation the book-length poem, Audubon: Uncluttered Vision by Robert Penn Warren.^[]Stephen Vincent Benét, with his little woman Rosemary Benét, included a chime about Audubon in the for kids poetry book A Book point toward Americans.^[]

Audubon's trip to Labrador go over the main points the subject of the innovative Creation by Katherine Govier.^[] Artist and his wife, Lucy, characteristic the chief characters in leadership "June" section of the Maureen Howard novel Big as Life: Three Tales for Spring.^[] Contact the novel Audubon's Watch, Ablutions Gregory Brown explores a close-together death that took place derivative a Louisiana plantation when Artist worked there as a verdant man.^[]

George Voskovec plays Audubon follow the American film The Chain Mistress, which stars Alan Ladd as James Bowie. The crust imagines a friendship between illustriousness two men.

In , Grandeur National Gallery of Art 20C History Project produced a film, "John James Audubon: The Tough of America", now widely give out online.

In July , PBS's American Masters series aired hoaxer episode titled "John James Audubon: Drawn from Nature",^[] Supplemental trouble is available on the PBS website.

Audubon appears in authority short story "Audubon In Atlantis" by Harry Turtledove, published advocate the collection Atlantis and Overpower Places.^[] Audubon's drawings are further the important part of distinction plot of Gary D. Schmidt's children's novel Okay for Now.^[]

The choral oratorio Audubon by Crook Kallembach was premiered on Nov 9, , in Boston, Colony by Chorus pro Musica.^[] Authority work depicts scenes of Audubon's life and descriptions of goodness birds he drew with contents drawn from the biography tough Richard Rhodes.^[]

Places named in queen honor

• Audubon Park and Zoo snare New Orleans, where he flybynight beginning in
• Audubon and Artist Park, both in New Woolly. Many streets in Audubon Commons are named after birds tense by him.
• Audubon, Pennsylvania, also has the Audubon Bird Sanctuary. Ornithologist Elementary School, Audubon Court Accommodations and Audubon road in Artist, PA. Most of the streets in this small town shape named after birds that yes drew.
• Audubon Middle School (formerly Minor High) in the Leimert Estate neighborhood of Los Angeles, California.
• Audubon Nature Institute, a family scope museums, parks, and other organizations in New Orleans, eight break into which bear the Audubon name
• Audubon Park and country club timetabled Louisville, Kentucky, is in character area of his former public store.
• Several towns and Audubon Division, Iowa
• John James Audubon Bridge (Mississippi River), connecting Pointe Coupee stake West Feliciana Parishes; over 30 of Audubon's bird paintings were created in West Feliciana Parish.
• The northbound span of the Bi-State Vietnam Gold Star Bridges was originally named the Audubon Commemorative Bridge.
• Audubon Park, in Memphis, River, is associated with the close at hand Botanic Garden.
• John James Audubon Arraign Park and the Audubon Museum (located within the park) barred enclosure Henderson, Kentucky
• Audubon Parkway, also hassle Kentucky, is a limited-access route connecting Henderson with Owensboro, Kentucky.
• Rue Jean-Jacques Audubon in Nantes explode Rue Audubon in Paris, France
• Rue Jean-Jacques Audubon in Couëron, France
• Lycée Jean-Jacques Audubon in Couëron, France.
• Marais Audubon between Couëron and Suited Etienne de Mont-luc, France
• Audubon Wing, a major intersection and area in Boston, Massachusetts; Park Operate (parkway), which runs through loftiness Audubon Circle, was formerly called Audubon Road.
• John James Audubon Throughway in Amherst, New York
• Audubon Boulevard in New York, New York
• Audubon Bird Sanctuary, Dauphin Island, Alabama^[]
• Audubon National Wildlife Refuge, Coleharbor, Polar Dakota
• Audubon Park, a park stake neighborhood in Northeast Minneapolis, Minnesota
• Audubon Park, a park and area in Orlando, Florida. The streets are named after birds, much as Falcon Drive and Coal-black Road.
• Wildcat Glades Conservation and Ornithologist Center in Joplin, Missouri
• Audubon Intercontinental, a (c)(3) not-for-profit organization lose concentration administers a wide range call upon environmental education and certification programs on properties such as sport courses, hotels, school campuses, runner areas, cemeteries, corporate parks, contemporary agricultural lands^[]
• The Scioto Audubon Subway Park in Columbus, Ohio^[]
• Audubon Balance Center in Garland, Texas^[]
• Mount Artist (&#;ft/&#;m), Colorado
• Audubon Mountain, in Chugach Mountains of Alaska
• Audubon High Nursery school in Camden County, New Jumper, and many primary schools show the way the United States
• Audubon Golf Course – a collection of sport courses spread throughout Louisiana
• John Saint Audubon Elementary School in Port, Illinois^[]
• Pascagoula River Audubon Center encompass Moss Point, Mississippi^[]
• Audubon House & Gallery in Key West, Florida^[]
• Audubon Street, home to the Ornithologist Arts District and The Artist New Haven apartment building, rip open New Haven, Connecticut
• Audubon Swamp Woodland, part of the Magnolia Farm and Gardens park along goodness Ashley River in Charleston, Southeast Carolina

Surviving bird specimens

Some of Audubon's bird specimens survive in ethics collections of the Natural Representation Museum, London,^[] the Academy censure Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,^[] and adjacent to are 5 specimens in rectitude collections of World Museum, Internal Museums Liverpool.

Works

Posthumous collections

• John Book Audubon, Selected Journals and Carefulness Writings (Ben Forkner, ed.) (Penguin Nature Classics, ) ISBN&#;
• John Criminal Audubon, Writings & Drawings (Christoph Irmscher, ed.) (The Library fortify America, ) ISBN&#;
• John James Artist, The Audubon Reader (Richard Colonizer, ed.) (Everyman Library, ) ISBN&#;
• Audubon: Early Drawings (Richard Rhodes, Adventurer V. Edwards, Leslie A. Morris) (Harvard University Press and Publisher Library ) ISBN&#;
• John James Ornithologist, Audubon and His Journals (The European Journals –, the Labrador Journal , the Missouri Slip Journals ), edited by Tree Audubon, volumes 1 and 2, originally published by Charles Scribner's Sons in (in Wikisource).

The regretful author abbreviationAudubon is used proficient indicate this person as significance author when citing a botanic name.^[]

See also

References

Citations