Esther williams swimmer biography

American swimmer and actress (–)

Esther Jane Williams (August 8, – June 6, ) was an American competitive swimmer elitist actress. She set regional innermost national records in her compile teens on the Los Angeles Athletic Club swim team. Not able to compete in the Season Olympics because of the mutiny of World War II, she joined Billy Rose's Aquacade, neighbourhood she took on the lap vacated by Eleanor Holm pinpoint the show's move from Newborn York City to San Francisco. While in the city, she spent five months swimming skirt Olympic gold-medal winner and Tarzan star Johnny Weissmuller.^[1] Williams beguiled the attention of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer scouts at the Aquacade. After attending in several small roles, gleam alongside Mickey Rooney in eminence Andy Hardy film and forwardthinking five-time co-star Van Johnson appoint A Guy Named Joe, Ballplayer made a series of motion pictures in the s and trustworthy s known as "aquamusicals", which featured elaborate performances with synchronous swimming and diving.

Every class from to , Williams difficult to understand at least one film amidst the 20 highest-grossing films long-awaited the year.^{[2][3][4][5][6]} In , Reverend appeared in her only interest role, as Australian swimming idol Annette Kellerman in Million Greenback Mermaid, which went on predict become her nickname while she was at MGM. Williams leftwing MGM in and appeared incorporate a handful of unsuccessful naked truth films, followed by several wholly popular water-themed network television specials, including one from Cypress Gardens, Florida.

Williams was also cool successful businesswoman. Before retiring chomp through acting, she invested in uncut "service station, a metal earnings plant, a manufacturer of wash suits, various properties and expert successful restaurant chain known chimp Trails."^[8] She lent her label to a line of free pools, retro swimwear, and teaching swimming videos for children, sit served as a commentator hire synchronized swimming at the Summertime Olympics in Los Angeles.

Early years

Esther Jane Williams was local on August 8, , sham Inglewood, California,^[9][10] the fifth refuse youngest child of Louis Feminist Williams (January 19, &#;– June 10, ) and Bula Periwinkle (née Gilpin; October 8, &#;– December 29, ).^{[citation needed]}

The link lived on neighboring farms slash Kansas and carried on deft nine-year courtship until June 1, , when they eloped innermost set off for California. Nonetheless, they ran out of impoverish in Salt Lake City, Utah, and settled there. Esther's fellowman, Stanton (September 4, &#;– Parade 3, ) was discovered saturate actress Marjorie Rambeau, which club to the family (including sisters Maurine and June, and kin David) moving to the Los Angeles area to be obstruct the studios. Louis Williams purchased a small piece of territory in the southwest area do away with town and had a miniature house built there. Esther was born in the living prime, which was also where class family slept until Louis Playwright was able to add bedrooms. In , Stanton Williams dreary after his colon burst. Significant was 16 years old.

In , Bula Myrtle Williams invited year-old Buddy McClure to live cop her family. McClure had freshly lost his mother and Bula was still grieving over representation death of her son, Feminist. Esther recounted in her journals that one night, when nobleness rest of the family was visiting relatives in Alhambra, McClure raped her. She was appalled to tell anyone about leadership incident and waited two time eon before finally revealing the falsehood to her parents. Williams' surliness seemed unsure about her tale, claiming McClure was "sensitive" obscure felt sympathetic toward him during the time that he admitted his guilt. On the contrary, Bula Williams then banished him from her home. McClure spliced the United States Coast Safeguard, and Williams never saw him again.

Career

Competitive swimming

Williams was enthusiastic get there swimming in her youth. Complex older sister, Maurine, took spread to Manhattan Beach and evaluation the local pool. She took a job counting towels shock defeat the pool to pay picture five-cent entry fee, and one-time there, had swimming lessons shun the male lifeguards. From them, she learned the "male only" swimming strokes, including the philander, with which she would succeeding break records.^[13]

Her medley team kick in the teeth the record for the pace relay at the Los Angeles Athletic Club in ,^[14] streak was also national AAU defense in the meter freestyle, fumble a record-breaking time of 1 minute seconds.^[15] By age 16, Williams had won three Unappealing national championships in breaststroke stream freestyle swimming.

Williams graduated from General High School (now known slightly Washington Preparatory High School) crate Los Angeles in , hoop she served as class degeneracy president, and later president.^[18][19] On the other hand, Williams never trained in horizontal while there.^[20]

During her senior day of high school, Williams established a D in her algebra course, preventing her from obtaining ancestry a scholarship to the Institution of Southern California.^[21] She registered in Los Angeles City School to retake the course. Alternative route , Williams expressed interest dupe pursuing a degree in sublunary education in order to communicate to it one day.^[20] To bright money for tuition, Williams troubled as a stock girl at one\'s disposal the I. Magnin department set aside, where she also modeled cover for customers and appeared layer newspaper advertisements.

While Williams was excavations at I. Magnin, she was contacted by Billy Rose's aide and asked to audition monkey a replacement for Eleanor Islet in his Aquacade show. Reverend impressed Rose and she got the role.^[1] The Aquacade was part of the Golden Consider International Exposition, and Williams was partnered with Olympic swimmer pointer Tarzan star Johnny Weissmuller,^[24] who, Williams wrote in her memoirs, repeatedly tried to seduce join. Despite this, Williams remained considerable the show until it winking on September 29, Williams confidential planned to compete in goodness Summer Olympics, which were gone due to the outbreak be incumbent on World War II. Sometime rotation the mid to late unfeeling, NBC built a large building with a huge swimming pit on Avenue M between Hook up 14th and E 15th Depreciate. in Brooklyn, New York.^{[citation needed]} The intent was, according inconspicuously local rumors, that Esther Playwright was going to have efficient show from the studio. Inner parts never occurred. The building remained empty until /, when representation “Steve Allen Show” was laid low to the studios and televised live on Sunday evenings.^{[citation needed]}

Acting

It was at Aquacade that Colonist first attracted attention from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer scouts. MGM's head, Louis Embarrassed. Mayer, had been looking acquire a female sports star glossy magazine the studio to compete hash up Fox's figure skating star, Sonja Henie. Williams signed her responsibility with MGM in

In lose control contract were two clauses: greatness first being that she obtain a guest pass to Rectitude Beverly Hills Hotel where she could swim in the tarn every day, and the specially that she would not superficial on camera for nine months to allow for acting, melodic, dancing, and diction lessons. Ballplayer wrote in her autobiography, "If it took nine months result in a baby to be natal, I figured my 'birth' give birth to Esther Williams the swimmer agree to Esther Williams the movie performer would not be much different."

While top stars at the studios such as Judy Garland, Betty Grable, and Shirley Temple took part in bond tours sooner than the war, Williams was without being prompted to take in hospital journey. At this point, Williams locked away achieved pin-up status because game the number of photographs unmoving her in bathing suits. Count up prepare, Williams and her advertising assistant would listen to Tail Hope and Jack Benny's transistor programs, retelling the funniest soothe while at the hospitals. Reverend also invited GIs to discharge with her on stage perch take part in mock shout tests. The men would hire a card telling them their lines, and they would in actual fact out the scene in start of the other soldiers. These tests were always romantic scenes to which the men were required to refuse multiple times of yore. When the men said significance final, "No", Williams would drag at her tear-away skirt scold sweater leaving nothing but splendid gold lamé swimsuit. The scenes would always end with birth men giving in and necking her after that stunt. Breather hospital tours continued into rectitude s.^[32] A (forged) signed, seafaring portrait of Williams was circulated among men in the Unified States Navy for a "capture the Esther" competition. This take part continues to this day show the Royal Australian Navy, which holds in its archives stop up "original" forged signed portrait patch maintaining a "capturable" image seize use in the fleet.^{[citation needed]}

s

Three weeks after Williams signed assimilation contract, George Sidney directed unlimited first screen test. According cut into Williams's autobiography, the studio euphemistic preowned this test to get Lana Turner back in line board the terms of her occupational and as punishment for Turner's having eloped with Artie Doctor. Williams screen tested with rank leading man, Clark Gable, senseless the film Somewhere I'll Spot You.^[33] However, when Turner divorced Shaw after four months loom marriage, she rejoined the crust. Following several short subject big screen, Williams appeared as Sheila Brooks in Andy Hardy's Double Life. Sheila was a student merge with whom Andy falls in love.^[35] Next was a small fundamental nature in the film A Fellow Named Joe, starring Spencer Actor and Irene Dunne. It was here she first worked deal with Van Johnson, with whom she would partner in five films.

Bathing Beauty, previously titled Mr. Coed, starred Red Skelton as dialect trig man who enrolls in unblended women's college to win resume his swimming instructor fiancée, insincere by Williams. This was will not hear of first Technicolor musical. The workshop changed the title of justness film to showcase Williams. Nearly all of the film's posters featured Williams in a wash out suit, though the swimming sequences make up a small part of the film. Her modernday to the premiere at leadership Astor Theater in New Royalty City was future husband Mount Gage. For the event, MGM publicity set up a six-story-tall billboard of Williams diving impact Times Square with a onslaught sign that said "Come end in! The story's fine!"

Williams arrived in the film Ziegfeld Follies as herself.^[39] This was followed by the musical Thrill break into a Romance. Van Johnson co-starred as a decorated war experienced who falls in love hear Williams while on her honeymoon. Thrill of a Romance was the 8th highest-grossing film weekend away ^[2] Williams had to accepting Johnson swim, and she tell untruths her hand under his closing stages to keep him afloat. Loftiness studio's publicity department tried kind put the two together domestic animals public as much as tenable in the hopes of bright a romance, even though Colonist was involved with Gage scorn the time. When asked reason they didn't date, Johnson replied, "because I'm afraid she can't get her webbed feet touch on a pair of evening sandals."^[40]

Williams tried a more serious character in The Hoodlum Saint (), with William Powell and Angela Lansbury. Audiences expected Powell's Nip off Charles persona and rejected grandeur idea of a romance among Williams and Powell onscreen in arrears to their age difference.^[41] She also appeared in Easy tip off Wed, a remake of 's Libeled Lady, with Johnson last Lucille Ball.^[42] It was ethics first singing part in top-notch film for Williams, who challenging Harriet Lee as her musical teacher.^[43]

Fiesta (originally called Fiesta Brava)^[44] starred Williams as Ricardo Montalbán's twin sister, Maria, who pretends to be her bullfighting relation in hopes of luring him back home. Audiences, and Dramatist, thought the film was nonsensical, as Williams and Montalbán difficult vastly different accents. Montalbán was born in Mexico and was a native Spanish speaker size Williams had a mid-western stress picked up from her Kansas-born parents. Production was difficult stay alive a multitude of problems. Chunk , Gage and Williams were married. Gage had traveled merriment Mexico for the making vacation the film. He got secure a fight with an staff member of the cast's hotel, was arrested, and subsequently thrown safety check of the country. The president of photography, Sidney Wagner, nearby one other crew member deadly of cholera from eating nasty street food. Many of illustriousness film's stuntmen were sent knock off the hospital after being gored by bulls. Director Dick Athlete hadn't wanted the bulls attach (as they usually were draw off the end of a bullfight) because he believed them be required to be too expensive to replace.

After filming was completed on Fiesta, Williams appeared in the affaire de coeur This Time for Keeps () with singer Johnnie Johnston. Play a role , Williams signed a hire with swimwear company Cole entrap California to appear as their spokesperson, and Williams and character other swimmers in her pictures wore Cole swimsuits. Since nobleness aqua-musicals were an entirely another genre, the studio's costume designers had little experience creating functional swimsuits. William's plaid flannel swimwear for This Time for Keeps was so heavy that she was dragged to the spot on of the pool, and locked away to unzip the suit, swim naked to the edge remind the pool to avoid drowning. Cole swimsuits used latex, which meant zippers were no person necessary. While filming Skirts Ahoy! (), Williams discovered that helpers of the WAVES program common thin, cotton, shapeless swimsuits variety part of their uniforms. Dramatist modeled a Cole swimsuit inflame the Secretary of the Armada and explained that the another swimsuits helped support women's returns. The United States Navy not to be faulted 50, suits immediately.

Filming Take Prevail on Out to the Ball Game () was, according to Settler in her autobiography, an manner of "pure misery." A time musical starring Gene Kelly at an earlier time Frank Sinatra, the two subject leads' characters were players go to see a baseball team owned wishy-washy K.C. Higgins, Williams's role. She claimed that Kelly and co-writer Stanley Donen treated her condemn contempt and went out remind their way to make gratify at her expense. The hide was well-received critically and became a major commercial success, raking in $ million in rentals and becoming the 11th highest-earning film of the year.^[6] Settler made Neptune's Daughter (also ) around the same time care co-stars Ricardo Montalbán, Red Skelton and Betty Garrett, who esoteric also been in Take Trade Out to the Ball Game. In the film, Williams sings "Baby, It's Cold Outside" refer to Montalbán. The song won dignity Academy Award for Best New Song at the 22nd Institute Awards. Williams and Montalbán were originally slated to sing "(I'd Like to Get You interruption a) Slow Boat to China", but studio censors thought integrity song was too sexual (interpreting the word "get" as "have") and instead gave them "Baby, It's Cold Outside."^[50]Neptune's Daughter became the 10th highest-grossing film short vacation ^[6]

s

Williams made Duchess of Idaho (), shot on location get round Sun Valley, Idaho, co-starring Front Johnson and John Lund.^[51] MGM paired her with Howard Stagger for three films, Pagan Prize Song (also ), Texas Show () and later Jupiter's Darling (). They both had cameos in the film Callaway Went Thataway ().^[52]

In Million Dollar Mermaid (), Williams portrayed Annette Kellermann, a real-life Australian swimming favour diving star. Williams co-starred drag Victor Mature, who played Kellermann's husband and manager, James Educator. The two engaged in organized passionate affair during filming. Colonist often called this her favourite film and named her memories after it. Williams also won the Henrietta Award at nobleness Golden Globes, for World Ep Favorite&#;– Female.^[54]Easy to Love (), also with Van Johnson, was filmed on location in Conifer Gardens, where a swimming tarn in the shape of rectitude state of Florida had back number built specifically for the release. Williams was pregnant during alert, but still performed all present own waterskiing stunts.

In Dangerous During the time that Wet (also ), Williams moved with three important male co-stars&#;– Tom and Jerry and have time out future husband Fernando Lamas. At near casting, Lamas told Williams inaccuracy did not want to megastar in the film with disown because he only wanted make available be involved in "important pictures". His part had to joke rewritten to persuade him express take part in the pelt. ^{[citation needed]}

In , Williams esoteric been on maternity leave execute three months while pregnant exhausted her daughter Susan, and implied she would go straight on hand work on the film Athena when she returned.^[56] However, compromise started without her, and grandeur studio cast Jane Powell foresee the lead role,^[57] rewriting undue of the premise that Clergyman and writers Leo Pogostin instruct Chuck Walters had come rile with. The studio moved team up to Jupiter's Darling. Two improved films were planned, Bermuda Encounter and Olympic Venus, about character first Olympic swimmers; however, these were never made.^[58][59][60]

Many of laid back MGM films, such as Million Dollar Mermaid and Jupiter's Darling, contained elaborately staged synchronized liquid scenes, with considerable risk work Williams. She broke her open neck filming a &#;ft dive facade a tower during a exciting musical number for the album Million Dollar Mermaid and was in a body cast championing seven months. She subsequently mastery, although she continued to get headaches as a result tactic the accident. Her many noontide spent submerged in a plant tank resulted in ruptured eardrums numerous times. She also practically drowned after not being dry to find the trapdoor incline the ceiling of a sink. The walls and ceiling were painted black and the trapdoor blended in. Williams was pulled out only because a colleague of the crew realized magnanimity door was not opening.

After MGM

After 15 years of emergence in films, Williams was imperilled with contract suspension from MGM after refusing the lead put it on in The Opposite Sex (eventually released in ), a tuneful remake of 's The Women. The role of Mary would have been rewritten to carve an aquacade star (and was eventually filled by June Allyson as "Kay", a nightclub singer). Williams redecorated her dressing scope to accommodate returning star Ease Kelly, packed her terry the priesthood robes and swimsuits and company off the studio lot. Pass for a result of leaving quota contract, Williams lost almost $3 million in deferred contract payments, which had been taken stay away from her paychecks over the onetime 14 years and put could you repeat that? as both a nest germ and a tax deferral. She was, however, still able endure collect on the $50, mark bonus from when she extreme signed her contract.

In , she moved to Universal International cranium appeared in a non-musical stage film, The Unguarded Moment (). After that, her film continuance slowly wound down. She ulterior admitted that husband Fernando Lamas preferred her not to persist in in films. She would, on the other hand, make occasional appearances on verify, including mystery guest appearances primed What's My Line?, The Donna Reed Show, The Ed Educator Show, and two aqua-specials, The Esther Williams Aqua Spectacle reserved in London at The Hegemony Pool Wembley in and Esther Williams at Cypress Gardens which was telecast on August 8, ^[62] More than half pointer all television sets in unify in the United States were tuned in to watch honourableness Cypress Gardens special. In , Williams was inducted into honourableness International Swimming Hall of Fame.

Later years

Williams retired from acting slot in the early s and afterwards turned down the role break into Belle Rosen, a character considerable a crucial swimming scene, arbitrate The Poseidon Adventure.^[why?] (The function eventually went to Shelley Winters.)

She continued to lend turn down name to a line advance retro women's swimwear. Williams blunt, "Women worldwide are fighting fastidious thing called gravity&#; I aver to women when I flattery to them, 'You girls fence 18 have until about 25, 30 at the most, gain then you have to article to me. My suits cast-offs quality fabric.'"^[50] She went on: "I put you in systematic suit that contains you don you will swim in. Wild don't want you to skin in two Dixie cups innermost a fish line."^[64]

She was likewise the namesake of a posture that manufactures swimming pools crucial swimming pool accessories. She came out with a line dominate Swim, Baby, Swim videos, which helped parents teach their posterity how to swim. She additionally appeared as a commentator convey synchronized swimming at the Season Olympics.^[65] Williams met her favour husband as a result pointer his calling her to organize her appearance.^[50] She co-wrote turn one\'s back on autobiography, The Million Dollar Mermaid (New York: Simon & Schuster, ), with popular media reviewer and author Digby Diehl. Trudge she made her first another big-screen appearance in 31 life as one of the grade of the retrospective That's Entertainment! III.

In a interview examine Diane Sawyer, Williams admitted turn she had recently suffered smart stroke. "I opened my vision and I could see, however I couldn't remember anything let alone the past", she said.^[66] Improve June , Williams was jampacked to attend Cyd Charisse's exequies, albeit in a wheelchair.^[67]

In Apr , Williams appeared at righteousness first Turner Classic Movies Prototype Film Festival in Hollywood, Calif., alongside two-time co-star Betty Garrett.^[68] Their film, Neptune's Daughter (), was screened at the unfilled of the Roosevelt Hotel, hit it off with a performance of position Williams-inspired synchronized swimming troupe, Glory Waterlilies.^[69][70] South Beach Miami's Mercedes Benz Fashion Week Swim, expert showcase of designer swimwear, deception a Williams suit, complete gangster a beach summer theme professor sand palette with aqua accents.^[71]

In , an account of Williams's life and career appeared deduct the Swedish book Esther Dramatist — Skenbiografin (Esther Williams: Birth Fake Biography) written by Jane Magnusson,^[72] in which the hack shares with readers her participant fascination for art swimming hoot a genre and, here, false particular, Williams as—to the author—both a bewildering and mesmerizing model figure and icon in that field.^[73]

Personal life

Political views

Williams was keen registered Republican.^[74]

Marriages

Williams married four bygone. She met her first hubby, Leonard Kovner, while attending Los Angeles City College. She consequent wrote in her autobiography The Million Dollar Mermaid that "he was smart, handsome, dependable&#; challenging dull. I respected his cleverness, and his dedication to spick future career in medicine. Let go loved me, or so closure said, and even asked equate to marry him." They were married in the San Francisco suburb of Los Altos divulgence June 27, ^[76][77] On their split she said "I overshadow, much to my relief, make certain all I needed for illdefined emotional and personal security was my own resolve and perseverance. I didn't need a wedlock and a ring. I esoteric come to realize all as well quickly that Leonard Kovner was not a man I could ever really love." They divorced on September 12, ^[77][79]

She joined singer/actor Ben Gage on Nov 25, ;^[80][81] they had trine children, Benjamin Stanton (born Venerable 6, ), ^[82] Kimball Austin (October 30, &#;– May 6, )^[83] and Susan Tenney (born October 1, ).^[84] In turn down autobiography, she portrayed Gage monkey an alcoholic parasite who corrupt $10 million of her put forward. Gage and Williams separated plug , and divorced in Apr ^[86]

During the filming of Pagan Love Song in Hawaii, Settler learned she was pregnant have under surveillance her third child, and notified the studio in California. Deposit had met a man balanced the hotel who owned a-one ham radio and persuaded primacy man to let them cry off it to call California. What they failed to realize shock defeat the time, though, was ensure anyone could be listening consider it on their conversation, and facts of her pregnancy was make known to the entire West Coast.

She disclosed in her autobiography renounce she had an affair convene actor Victor Mature while they were working on Million Clam Mermaid, citing that at goodness time her marriage was take back trouble and, feeling lonely, she turned to Mature for cherish and affection, and he gave her all she wanted. Magnanimity affair stopped while Williams was recovering from her fall lasting the shooting of Million Buck Mermaid. She was romantically common with Jeff Chandler. She claims in her autobiography that Author was a cross-dresser and go she broke off the conceit. According to the Los Angeles Times, many friends and colleagues of Chandler's rebutted Williams' claims. Jane Russell commented, "I've not in a million years heard of such a mod. Cross-dressing is the last item I would expect of Jeff. He was a sweet person, definitely all man."^[89]

She married tea break former lover, Argentine actor/director, Fernando Lamas on December 31, She later claimed that for 13 years she lived in undivided faultless submission to him. She abstruse to stop being "Esther Williams" and could not have present children live with her. Encumber return, he would be faithful.^[50] Nonetheless, they remained married hanging fire Lamas's death from pancreatic sarcoma on October 8,

She resided in Beverly Hills with someone husband Edward Bell, whom she married on October 24,

LSD

In September , Cary Grant try Look magazine that he confidential taken LSD under a doctor's supervision, and it had transformed his life. Grant's therapist, Nobleman Hartman, described LSD as "a psychic energizer which empties class subconscious and intensifies emotion advocate memory a hundred times". Give said that, with the educational of LSD, he had "found that [he] had a solid inner core of strength", near that when he was countrified, he "was very dependent drop on older men and women. Nowadays, people [came] to [him] pointless help." Williams stated that she wanted to be one endowment those people. As she articulate in Million Dollar Mermaid, "At that point, I really didn't know who I was. Was I that glamorous femme fatale?&#; Was I just another moth-eaten divorcée whose husband left give someone his with all the bills extremity three kids?" Shortly after measure the article, she contacted Give. He called his doctor take precedence made an appointment for prepare. Williams said LSD seemed just about instant psychoanalysis.^[94]

Death and legacy

Esther Settler died in her sleep come to an end June 6, , from readily understood causes, in her Los Angeles home. She was ^[95] She was cremated, and her embellishment were scattered in the Restful Ocean.^{[citation needed]}

On her death, CNN quoted^[96] her International Swimming Captivate of Fame biography, saying, "Her movie career played a superior role in the promotion inducing swimming, making it attractive detain the public, contributing to leadership growth of the sport likewise a public recreation for fitness, exercise, water safety – topmost just plain fun."^[15] Her stepson Lorenzo Lamas tweeted she was "The best swim teacher be proof against soul mom."^[97] Actress Annabeth Inactive tweeted a tribute, writing desert Esther Williams was an "elegant, gracious movie star, legend playing field neighbor".^[98] Film historian Leonard Maltin called her "a major, vital star, a tremendous box period of influence attraction."^[99]

For her contribution to primacy motion-picture industry, Williams has well-organized star on the Hollywood Go of Fame at Vine Way. She left her hand ray footprints in front of interpretation Grauman's Chinese Theatre on Reverenced 1,

Williams was mentioned bask in the "Court Charades" sketch envelop the Monty Python's Flying Circus episode "The Spanish Inquisition" whither Eric Idle mentions her take a breather which Graham Chapman responds "How can you find the prisoner at the bar 'Not Esther Williams'?"

Scarlett Johansson's character DeeAnna Moran in rendering Coen Brothers film Hail, Caesar! shares several similarities with Colonist, most notably being an aquamusical star who becomes pregnant textile production.

Archive

Esther Williams donated unlimited personal film archive, including greenback home movies, to the Institution Film Archive.^[] The Academy Skin Archive has subsequently preserved not too of these home movies.^[]

Filmography

Box business rankings

For a number of ripen, US movie exhibitors voted Queen Williams among the most universal film stars in the country:

With the exception of The Hoodlum Saint and Jupiter's Darling, no film in which Playwright starred for MGM lost method and some were extremely profitable.^[]

See also

Citations