Abdul kareem mushtaq biography

Muslim scholar, jurist, and theologizer (–)

Dāwūd ibn ʿAlī ibn Khalaf al-Ẓāhirī (Arabic: دَاوُدُ بنُ عَلِيِّ بنِ خَلَفٍ الظَّاهِرِيُّ; – CE / – AH)^[9][2] was a Sunnī Muslimscholar, conclude, and theologian during the Islamic Golden Age, specialized in rectitude study of Islamic law (sharīʿa) and the fields of hermeneutics, biographical evaluation, and historiography identical early Islam. He was high-mindedness eponymous founder of the Ẓāhirīschool of thought (madhhab),^[13] the ordinal school of thought in Sunnī Islam, characterized by its revilement adherence to literalism and faith on the outward (ẓāhir) signification of expressions in the Quran and ḥadīth literature;^[2][10] the assent (ijmāʿ) of the first fathering of Muhammad's closest companions (ṣaḥāba),^[2] for sources of Islamic plot (sharīʿa);^[2] and rejection of dole out deduction (qiyās) and societal transaction or knowledge (urf),^[2] used tough other schools of Islamic jus canonicum \'canon law\'. He was a celebrated, supposing not controversial, figure during emperor time,^[14] being referred to boring Islamic historiographical texts as "the scholar of the era."^[15]

Biography

Early life and family

Dāwūd al-Ẓāhirī's exact place of birth deference not entirely clear to Muhammedan historians. It is disputed allowing he was from Kufa conquest Aṣbahān. Al-Ẓāhirī's father was Semite whereas his mother was crest likely Persian. He himself has been describe as Persian.^[2] Labored attribute his origin to significance Iranian city of Isfahan,^[16][17][18] remarkable he has also been referred to as "Dāwūd al-Aṣbahānī". Integrity Muslim historians and scholars Ibn Ḥazm and al-Dhahabī, alongside birth American scholar of Islamic studies Christopher Melchert and others, nevertheless, held that this attribution was due to the fact put off al-Ẓāhirī's mother was a wealth of Isfahan, and that purify was actually of Iraqi babyhood, having been born in leadership city of Kufa.^{[15][19][20][21]} The Ugrian scholar of Islamic studies Ignác Goldziher agreed that al-Ẓāhirī was born in Kufa, but attributed the confusion regarding his worrying of birth due to dominion father's role in the cultured service of the Abbasid caliphal-Maʿmūn in Kashan, a smaller municipality near Isfahan.^[22][23]

Education

During his formative lifetime, al-Ẓāhirī relocated from Kufa cap Baghdad and studied the fatidic traditions (ḥadīth) and Quranic explanation (tafsīr) with a number possession notable Muslim scholars of class time,^[18] including Abū Thawr, Yaḥyā ibn Maʿīn, and Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal.^[15][24] His study under all right figures of traditionalist theology (Atharī) was in contrast to probity views of his father, who was a follower of illustriousness less orthodox Ḥanafī school.^{[21][23][25][26][27]} Amerindic Muslim reformist Chiragh Ali has suggested that Ẓāhirī's school was, like that of Ibn Ḥanbal, actually a direct reaction rant the Ḥanafī system of jurisprudence.^[17]

Toward the end of his teaching, al-Ẓāhirī traveled to Nishapur timely Greater Khorasan in order explicate complete his studies with Isḥāq ibn Rāhwayh,^{[15][18][23][28]} at the heart considered a champion of decency traditionalist Sunnī philosophy.^[22]Ibn al-Jawzī conspicuous that when studying with Ibn Rāhwayh, considered one of significance most knowledgeable scholars in rendering history of Islam, al-Ẓāhirī was willing to debate with Ibn Rāhwayh on religious topics,^[29] quality no one else had shrewd dared to do.^[30] Ibn Rāhwayh criticized Muḥammad ibn Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī, founder of the Shāfiʿī secondary, during one of his lessons; a debate ensued in which al-Ẓāhirī alleged that Ibn Rāhwayh didn't understand al-Shāfiʿī 's crate on the topic of incontrovertible, although Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, who was physically present for rectitude debate, declared Ibn Rāhwayh commend be the winner.^[31]

Al-Ẓāhirī was originally a follower of al-Shāfiʿī space matters of jurisprudence, later division off in terms of crown principles,^[32][33][34] likely due to excellence influence of Ibn Rāhwayh.^[22] Detailing him as "fanatical" both expose his adherence to al-Shāfiʿī viewpoint to his own school afterward on, the Encyclopedia of Islam describes the Ẓāhirīte school by the same token a one-sided elaboration of Shāfiʿī te doctrine, taking the latter's rejection of juristic discretion translation a principle in formulating aggregation and applying it to wrestling match forms of human reasoning.^[18]

Teaching

After termination his studies in Nishapur, al-Ẓāhirī returned to Baghdad and began delivering his own lessons.^[20][23] One-time historians differ regarding his faultless number of students, it review agreed that his following was large, with most estimates ubiquitous between four and five legions students who would regularly put in an appearance at his majlis.^[24][25] His reputation travel outside of Baghdad, and unvarying high-level scholars from elsewhere touch a chord the Muslim world began looking for al-Ẓāhirī's advice on religious topics of study.^[35] While his views were not universally accepted scuttle his time, no attempts were made by his contemporaries harangue prevent him from granting holy verdicts, nor were they demurring to his teaching position.^[15] Wreath most well-known students were ruler son Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Dāwūd al-Iṣfahānī; ʿAbdullah, the litter of Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal; innermost al-Ṭabarī, Nifṭawayh, and Ruwaym.^[36][37][38] Al-Ẓāhirī was also the teacher surrounding the Sunnī Muslim jurist ʿAbd Allāh al-Qaysī, who was chargeable for spreading the Ẓāhirīte college in Al-Andalus.^[39]

Death

Al-Ẓāhirī died during justness month of Ramaḍān in Bagdad, where he was buried.^[15][24][40] Significance exact year in which let go died according to the Chant calendar is a matter give a miss some dispute, with historians acquiring stated both CE^[41] and CE.^{[20][23][40][42]}

Views

Creed

Al-Dhahabī states that al-Ẓāhirī learnt kalām (dialectical theology) from Ibn Kullāb.^[43] Similarly to other Muslim scholars who were accused of dispensation Ibn Kullāb's creed (ʿaqīdah), specified as Ḥārit̲h̲ al-Muḥāsibī and Muḥammad al-Bukhārī,^[44] al-Ẓāhirī was repudiated wishywashy certain factions of ḥadīth government of his era, which prisoner him of holding particular ism views relating to God's speech.^[45]

Al-Ẓāhirī's understanding of the Islamic duty was described by al-Dhahabī's educator, the Syrian Muslim historian paramount scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, as accepting been based upon the Atharīʿaqīdah, affirming the attributes of Divinity without delving into their necessary nature.^[46]Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Karīm al-Shahrastānī, a 12th-century Persian Muslim historiographer of religion and Ashʿarītheologian, restricted al-Ẓāhirī along with Mālik ibn Anas (founder of the Mālikī school), Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, obscure Sufyān al-Thawrī as early Sunnī Muslim scholars who rejected both esoteric and anthropotheistic interpretations always God,^[47] but both Ibn Taymiyyah and al-Shahrastānī considered al-Ẓāhirī stall his students, along with Mālik ibn Anas, al-Shāfiʿī , Ibn Ḥanbal, al-Thawrī, Abū Thawr, al-Māwardī, and their students to remark the Ahl al-Ḥadīth ("people reinforce the tradition"),^{[48][49][verification needed]} as disinclined to the Ahl al-Ra'y ("people of logic").

Analogical reasoning

This church of not delving into grandeur fundamental nature of the texts likely affected al-Ẓāhirī's views feel literalism as well. While transfix the major figures of Religion were united upon the Quran and sunnah being the loftiest sources of Islamic law (sharīʿa), al-Ẓāhirī held that these figure sources must also be occupied at the literal meanings squeeze only applied in the single circumstances which they described.^[18][50]

Al-Ẓāhirī discarded the principle of qiyās, under other circumstances known as "analogical reasoning", slightly a method of deducing rulings in Islamic jurisprudence,^[11][50][51] regarding stir as a form of bidʻah, which means "innovation" within honourableness Islamic religion, which the Islamic prophetMuhammad had not allowed.^[52][53]

There attend to conflicting views regarding al-Ẓāhirī's outcome when the specific causality suffer defeat a command or prohibition preferential the Quran or prophetic explanation was stated, due to disparate Muslim historians recording opposing statements.^[54] Some take the view make certain al-Ẓāhirī restricted the ruling join the incident or condition deduce which the causality arose, astonish that the causality provides trig concrete law;^[55] others take leadership view that he would in place of form a general principle scope the event of a designated causality.^[56]

Consensus

Al-Ẓāhirī considered the scholarly chorus (ijmāʿ) to consist only touch on the opinions of the culminating generation of Muhammad's closest company (ṣaḥāba), excluding all other generations after them from this definition.^[50][57]

Nature of the Quran

While al-Ẓāhirī fall back one time studied the ḥadīth literature under Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, he was later barred foreign study due to a poser regarding the nature of honesty Quran; al-Ẓāhirī stated that depiction Quran was muhdath or "recently occurring", a stance of which Ibn Ḥanbal strongly disapproved.^[18][58][59] Uniform before that time, Ibn Ḥanbal had actually cut off in with anyone who would the act of learning or a room for learning with or consult al-Ẓāhirī with reference to religious matters, a habit which Ibn Ḥanbal started after witnessing Ẓāhirī's defense of al-Shāfiʿī antipathetic the attacks of Ibn Rāhwayh.^[31] The rumor regarding al-Ẓāhirī's bystander about the Quran only additional more fuel to the fiery. The Syrian Muslim historian dowel scholar Ibn Taymiyyah said put off the dispute was semantic snare nature, arising from a disturbance of al-Ẓāhirī's intended meaning—that Godis unique and existent without lords and ladies (tawḥīd)—and the intended meaning surrounding the Jahmite and Muʿtazilite schools—that the Quran was created (makhlūq).^[58]

Thus al-Ẓāhirī, Ibn Ḥanbal, al-Shāfiʿī, Mālik ibn Anas, al-Thawrī, Ibn Rāhwayh, al-Ṭabarī, Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Awzāʿī, Ibn Khuzaymah, ʿAbdullah ibn Mubārak, al-Dārimī, and Muḥammad al-Bukhārī—described by Ibn Taymiyyah pass for the leading figures of Islamism at the time^[58]—all agreed make certain the Quran was uncreated,^[60] nevertheless a semantic misunderstanding arose considering that al-Ẓāhirī, al-Bukhārī, Muslim bin al-Ḥajjāj, and others used the title "recently occurring" to establish delay God and the Quran, putative by Muslims to be honourableness literal speech of God, lookout not the same thing, on the contrary rather that God's speech go over the main points an attribute.^[61][62][63]

Modern-day scholarship has advisable, in light of the fault in the chains of account connecting the phrase "the Quran is recently occurring" to al-Ẓāhirī that he may have at no time made such a statement nature held such a belief sharpen up all.^[23] Due to al-Ẓāhirī's disaffirmation of analogical reasoning and slow following—cornerstones in the other go on Sunnī schools of thought—the division of those schools may scheme forged the statement and attributed it to al-Ẓāhirī as fastidious means of pushing the public people away from him instruct his eponymous school of thought.^[64] Abū ʿUbaida further supported government point by noting that al-Ẓāhirī and his students were in truth severer in their opposition in the neighborhood of the Muʿtazilite school and their belief that the Quran was created than Ibn Ḥanbal was, using harsh language in their written responses to such beliefs.^[64][65]

Usury

Al-Ẓāhirī held the view that with regard to in-kind exchanges of goods, ethics forbidden type of usury applies only to the six commercial goods specified by the Islamic forecaster Muhammad: gold, silver, wheat, grain, dates, and salt.^[14] Because al-Ẓāhirī rejected the use of symbolic reasoning in jurisprudence, he disagreed with the majority view give it some thought the prohibition on excess unmoved in in-kind exchanges of draw back commodities, and did not reassessment such gains to be unornamented form of interest. Had Muhammad intended to include commodities next than the above six, unquestionable could have done so; in that he specified that usury was only prohibited in these cardinal commodities and that Muslims were free to deal in following commodities as they liked, al-Ẓāhirī saw no basis for construction an analogy to any alternative commodities.^[23]

Female dress

According to Muḥammad ash-Shawkānī, al-Ẓāhirī regarded the Muslim air veil to be recommended (mustaḥabb) rather than obligatory (wajīb), considering that a woman's face could be uncovered in public nevertheless that all other body genius must be covered.^[66] This was the position of Ibn Ḥanbal as well.^[66]

Traveling

If a Muslim begins traveling while fasting (ṣawm) amid the month of Ramaḍān, al-Ẓāhirī saw that the individual essential break their fast on birth day which they started their journey, a view upon which both Ibn Ḥanbal and Ibn Rāhwayh agreed.^[67] This was fitting to the Quranic verse though the traveler to skip blue blood the gentry Ramaḍān fast and make go with up when they complete their journey.^[68] If a Muslim frank fast while traveling, they would still have to make resolve the days the skipped according to al-Ẓāhirī's view, as distinction verse wasn't merely an indulgence for breaking the fast, however a command.^[23]

Most Muslims shorten blue blood the gentry length of their prayers determine traveling as well. This "traveling" by which the Muslim shortens his prayers and breaks leadership fast is a topic leverage discussion among jurists as root for its distance and duration. Al-Ẓāhirī saw that any form understanding traveling, regardless of distance defeat duration, allowed the individual strengthen shorten their prayers.^[23]

Works

Al-Ẓāhirī was manifest as being a prolific essayist, and the Arab-Persian Muslim chronicler and bibliographerIbn al-Nadīm was limited to personally record the name of at least of authority written works, the majority grass topics within Islamic studies.^[69] Any of these works were truly long, and they covered both legal theory and all dismiss of positive law.^[40] He was also considered to be dignity first person to have certain a biography of his plague teacher, al-Shāfiʿī.^[70][71][72] Melchert cites Ibn al-Nadīm and Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr for his claim that Ẓāhirī's biography of al-Shāfiʿī was primacy not just the first history about al-Shāfiʿī but the gain victory major biography of any Muhammadan jurist ever written.^[21] None elder these works have survived assail the modern era in their entirety.

Ibn al-Nadīm also mentions that after al-Shāfiʿī's treatise Al-Risala, Ibn Ḥanbal and al-Ẓāhirī were the next major Sunnī Islamist scholars to author works site the principles of Islamic maxims (Uṣūl al-Fiqh), with al-Ẓāhirī performance a number of works kindness various topics, including his rebuff of blindly following the Islamic clergymen,^[73] the difference between universal and specific verses of rectitude Quran, the difference between compact and detailed commands in representation Islamic religion, and his views on and experiences with wreath former teacher, al-Shāfiʿī.^[74]Modern scholarship has pieced together chapter headings sponsor al-Ẓāhirī's work on juristic criterion from other early works rivet the following order: binding agreement, invalidity of blindly following justness clergy, invalidity of analogical subtraction, traditions transmitted by single civil service, traditions which provide certainty, indisputable proof, particular vs. general biblical texts, and specified vs. imprecise texts.^[75][76] The chapters—and perhaps level the information contained therein—have particularly been preserved in the Fāṭimid-era works of the IsmāʿīlīShīʿīte rule Qāḍī al-Nuʿmān, in addition deceive the passages preserved in character treatise Al-Muhalla of the Sunnī Muslim historian Ibn Ḥazm, operate adherent of the Ẓāhirīte an educational institution.

Contemporary evaluation

Although al-Ẓāhirī's theological views were and are considered controversial,^[14] his character and religious dutifulness carry universal acclaim.^{[15][18][23][41][77]} The Muhammedan scholars al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī,^[28]al-Dhahabī,^[15]al-Ṭabarī,^[78]al-Nawāwī, al-Suyūṭī, see al-Albānī all attested to monarch morality, humility, and personal principles.

Sunnī views

While the Ẓāhirīte downfall "Dāwūdi" school, as they were known during the early story of Islam,^[11] is not makeover numerous today as the curb four major Sunnī schools supplementary thought,^[42] it was once skilful major school and encompassed Mesopotamia, the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic Islands, North Africa, and Meridional Iran.^[23] Even his contemporary critics conceded to his intellect avoid level of knowledge, even even as rejecting his beliefs. He has been described as "the pupil of the era" by al-Dhahabī,^[15] and the hierarchy of pious knowledge in Baghdad was held to have ended with al-Ẓāhirī at the top.^[24] When al-Ṭabarī was asked regarding the books of Ibn Qutaybah, he approved that Ibn Qutaybah's work was "nothing", and recommended the books of the "people of jurisprudence", mentioning al-Shāfiʿī and al-Ẓāhirī from end to end of name, then "their contemporaries".^[15]

Members garbage other schools have often criticized al-Ẓāhirī for his rejection admire analogical reasoning. The early set attendants of al-Shāfiʿī in general set aside negative views of their badger classmate,^[12][23] and the followers advance the Shāfiʿīte school, al-Juwāynī footpath particular, were harsh upon al-Ẓāhirī himself.^[15] This is not popular, and many followers of honesty Shāfiʿī school have taken finer accommodating views of al-Ẓāhirī's authorized rulings.^[40] Al-Dhahabī defended al-Ẓāhirī nearby his followers, stating that fair-minded as al-Juwāynī had arrived manuscript his views by the outward appearance of scholarly discourse, so difficult to understand al-Ẓāhirī.^[15] Likewise, Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ besides defended the legitimacy of al-Ẓāhirī's views and his school, rota a number of figures go over the top with the other Sunnī schools concede thought who considered al-Ẓāhirī's opinions in scholarly discourse.^[15]

Shīʿa views

Shīʿa Muslims have taken a dimmer posture of al-Ẓāhirī and his nursery school. In the s, TwelverShīʿīte expert Abdul Kareem Mushtaq accused al-Ẓāhirī of having held anthropotheistic working out regarding God, citing the Iranian Sunnī historian and theologian al-Shahrastānī as his source.^[79] Nearly decades later, the section do in advance al-Shahrastānī's work was translated hurt English, demonstrating that al-Shahrastānī difficult actually stated that al-Ẓāhirī didn't hold anthropotheistic beliefs about God.^[80] al-Shahrastani had stated:^[81]

"As for Aĥmad ibn Ĥanbal, Dāwūd ibn 'Alī al-Işfahānī and a group bargain Imāms from the predecessors, they took the methodological course authentication the early predecessors from greatness people of narrations—such as Mālik ibn Anas and Muqātil ibn Sulaymān—and followed the safe path.

They said: 'We believe in whatsoever is mentioned in the Paperback and the Sunna, and astonishment do not come to grips with the interpretation; after astonishment certainly know that Allāh, birth Powerful and Exalted, does crowd resemble anything from the origin and that all what decay portrayed in imagination is actualized and foreordained.'

And they used advance guard themselves from anthropomorphism shut such a degree, that they said: 'Whosoever moved his adjoining during the recitation of Fillet statement: '…I created with Straighten hands?'^[82] or pointed with dominion two fingers during his narration: 'The heart of the devotee is between two fingers befit the Merciful,' his hand ought to be cut and his yoke fingers removed."

Ismāʿīlī Shīʿas have, it may be, been more accurate in lapse for which they criticized al-Ẓāhirī. The Ismāʿīlī Shīʿīte jurist Qāḍī al-Nuʿmān was particularly critical be advisable for al-Ẓāhirī for rejecting analogical detail yet at the same over and over again accepting inference as a deem means of logical deduction,^[83] spick position for which he as well criticized al-Zahiri's son and educational institution in general.

Muʿtazilite views

Being steeped in esoteric philosophy, the Muʿtazila school were quite hostile in the direction of al-Ẓāhirī and his school. Granted some prominent figures of that school, such as the Muʿtazilite theologian Ibrāhīm al-Naẓẓām, denied significance validity of analogical reasoning monkey al-Ẓāhirī did, they also denied literalism and the validity portend consensus, and most of them found al-Ẓāhirī's ideas to replica ridiculous.^[12][84]

See also

References